The President of the United States

The President is the head of the Executive Branch. The powers of the President of the United States are set forth in Article II of the Constitution. Some of these powers the President can exercise in his own right, without formal legislative approval. Others require the consent of the Senate or Congress as a whole. The following is a list of duties of the President of the United States:

Serves as the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. He can authorize the use of troops overseas without declaring war. To declare war officially, though, he must get the approval of the Congress.

Makes treaties with other nations; however, the Senate must approve any treaty before it becomes official.

Receives ambassadors of other nations, thereby recognizing those lands as official countries.

Recommends legislation to Congress. Despite all of his power, the President cannot write bills. He can propose a bill, but a member of Congress must submit it for him.

Appoints the heads of each Executive Branch department as Chief of the Government. He also appoints ambassadors, Supreme Court Justices, and other officials, with the agreement of the majority of the Senate.

The President plays a large role in making America's laws. His job is to approve the laws that Congress creates. When both chambers have approved a bill, they send it to the President. If he agrees with the law, he signs it and the law goes into effect.

If the President does not like a bill, he can veto it. There are two ways that he can veto a bill. First, the President can send the bill back to Congress unsigned. In most cases, he will also send a list of reasons he does not like the bill. Second, the President can "pocket" the bill. After ten days, one of two things happens: 1) if Congress is in session, the bill becomes a law anyway 2) if Congress has adjourned, the bill does not become law and the President has used a "pocket veto".

When the President vetoes a bill, it will most likely never become a law. Congress can override a veto, but to do so two-thirds of both the House of Representatives and the Senate must vote against the President.

Despite all of his power, the President cannot write bills. He can propose a bill, but a member of Congress must submit it for him.

Because he has so much responsibility, the President, along with the Vice-President, is the only official elected by the entire country. Not just anyone can be President, though. In order to be elected, one must be at least 35 years old. Also, each candidate must be a natural-born U.S. citizen and have lived in the U.S. for at least 14 years. When elected, the President serves a term of four years. The most one President can serve is two terms, for a total of eight years.

Before 1951, the President could serve for as many terms as he wanted. After two terms as President, George Washington chose not to run again. All other Presidents followed his example until Franklin D. Roosevelt successfully ran for office four times. He, however, did not complete his fourth term of office because he died in 1945. Six years later, Congress passed the 22^nd Amendment, which limits Presidents to two terms.

The U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO) publishes a wide variety of materials for the President. For example, when the White House releases the President's speeches, proclamations, and other presidential materials, they are published in the Weekly Compilation of Presidential Documents, which is available on GPO Access

The legislative branch of government has the authority to make laws for the nation. It was established in Article I of the Constitution with the creation of Congress. Agencies such as the Government Printing Office, Library of Congress, Congressional Budget Office, and the General Accounting Office, that provide support services for the Congress are also part of the legislative branch.

Congress is bicameral, that is, it is made up of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. This system was created by the Founding Fathers after much debate. Delegates to the Constitutional Convention from larger and more populated states wanted congressional representation to be based upon population. Fearing domination, delegates from smaller states wanted equal representation. The Great Compromise resulted in the creation of two houses, with representation based on population in one and with equal representation in the other.

Now members of Congress are elected by a direct vote of the people of the state they represent. It has not always been this way for the Senate. Prior to 1913 and the 17^th Amendment to the Constitution, Senators were chosen by their state legislatures. The Senate was viewed as representative of state governments, not of the people. It was the responsibility of Senators to ensure that their state was treated equally in legislation.

The primary duty of Congress is to write, debate, and pass bills, which are then passed on to the president for approval.

The Constitution grants Congress "all legislative powers" in the national government. Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution lists a wide range of congressional powers, including:

Congress also controls federal taxing and spending policies—one of the most important sources of power in the government. The Constitution also gives Congress the authority to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper," an implied source of power sometimes called the Elastic Clause.

One of the most important implied powers is Congress’s authority to investigate and oversee the executive branch and its agencies, such as the Department of Defense and the Department of Justice. Congress also holds hearings on matters of general public concern. Sometimes members of Congress conduct these hearings to identify problems that create a need for new laws. In other cases Congress holds hearings to raise public awareness about an issue.

There are, however, some congressional powers that are rarely used such as the ability to impeach an official and amending the Constitution.

In addition to the power described above, Congress shares powers with the president in matters such as, framing U.S. foreign policy and control over the military. For example, while the president negotiates treaties, they are only put into effect once the Senate approves them. Also, while Congress can declare war and approve funds for the military, the president is the commander-in-chief of the military.

A new Congress begins in January every two years following congressional elections, in which voters choose all representatives and a third of the senators. The entire House membership faces re-election every two years, but the Senate is a continuing body because there is never an entirely new Senate. Since the First Congress, which met from 1789 to 1791, all Congresses have been numbered in order. We are currently in the 107th Congress. Congress meets once every year. Usually the session lasts from January 3rd to July 31st, but it can last much longer.

For the most part, the House and Senate each meet in their respective chamber in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. However, on rare occasions, they will meet together for a joint session of Congress in the House chamber. For example, a joint session will be called to count electoral votes for presidential elections.

When the Constitution was being drafted, a debate broke out between states with large populations and those with smaller populations. Each had a different opinion about how the states should be represented in the new government. To be fair to each group, a compromise was reached. By dividing Congress into two houses, the House of Representatives would favor states with larger populations, while the Senate would favor those states with smaller populations.

Representation in the House is based on population.

There are a total of 435 members in the House of Representatives. Each member represents an area of a state, known as a congressional district. The number of representatives is based on the number of districts in a state. Each state is guaranteed one seat. Every ten years, the U.S. Census Bureau counts the population of the states to determine what number of districts should be in each state.

Representatives, elected for two-year terms, must be 25 years old, a citizen for at least seven years, and a resident of the state from which they are elected. Five additional members—from Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the Virgin Islands, and the District of Columbia—represent their constituencies in the House. While they may participate in the debates, they cannot vote.

Representation in the Senate is the same for each state.

There are a total of 100 members in the Senate. The Constitution states that the vice president has formal control over the Senate and is known as the president of the Senate. The vice president is only present for important ceremonies and to cast a tie-breaking vote.

Senators, elected for six-year terms, must be 30 years old, a citizen for at least nine years, and a resident of the state from which they are elected.

As in the House, the Senate also has special jobs that only it can perform. It can:

When the delegates to the Constitutional Convention created the executive branch of government, they gave the president a limited term of office to lead the government. This was very different from any form of government in Europe and caused much debate. The delegates were afraid of what too much power in the hands of one person might lead to. In the end, with a system of checks and balances included in the Constitution, a single president to manage the executive branch of government was adopted.

The executive branch of Government enforces the laws of the land. When George Washington was president, people recognized that one person could not carry out the duties of the President without advice and assistance. The President receives this help from the Vice President, department heads (Cabinet members), heads of independent agencies, and executive agencies. Unlike the powers of the President, their responsibilities are not defined in the Constitution but each has special powers and functions.

Many laws enacted by Congress require agencies to issue regulations. Executive branch agencies are granted the power to implement regulations relating to matters within their jurisdiction. For example, the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) makes regulations regarding medical issues. Regulations are published daily in the Federal Register and are then codified in the Code of Federal Regulations once a year.

#	PRESIDENT	VICE PRESIDENT	TERM	PARTY
1	George Washington	John Adams John Adams	1789-1793 1793-1797	None
2	John Adams	Thomas Jefferson	1797-1801	Federalist
3	Thomas Jefferson	Aaron Burr George Clinton	1801-1805 1805-1809	Democratic-Republican
4	James Madison	George Clinton Elbridge Gerry	1809-1813 1813-1817	Democratic-Republican
5	James Monroe	Daniel D. Tompkins	1817-1825	Democratic-Republican
6	John Quincy Adams	John C. Calhoun	1825-1829	Democratic-Republican
7	Andrew Jackson	John C. Calhoun Martin Van Buren	1829-1833 1833-1837	Democrat
8	Martin Van Buren	Richard M. Johnson	1837-1841	Democrat
9	William Henry Harrison	John Tyler	1841	Whig
10	John Tyler	None	1841-1845	Whig
11	James K. Polk	George M. Dallas	1845-1849	Democrat
12	Zachary Taylor	Millard Fillmore	1849-1850	Whig
13	Millard Fillmore	None	1850-1853	Whig
14	Franklin Pierce	William R. King	1853-1857	Democrat
15	James Buchanan	John C. Breckinridge	1857-1861	Democrat
16	Abraham Lincoln	Hannibal Hamlin Andrew Johnson	1861-1865 1865	Republican
17	Andrew Johnson	None	1865-1869	Democrat
18	Ulysses S. Grant	Schuyler Colfax Henry Wilson	1869-1873 1873-1877	Republican
19	Rutherford B. Hayes	William A. Wheeler	1877-1881	Republican
20	James Garfield	Chester A. Arthur	1881-1881	Republican
21	Chester A. Arthur	None	1881-1885	Republican
22	Grover Cleveland	Thomas A. Hendricks	1885-1889	Democratic
23	Benjamin Harrison	Levi P. Morton	1889-1893	Republican
24	Grover Cleveland	Adlai E. Stevenson	1893-1897	Democratic
25	William McKinley	Garret A. Hobart Theodore Roosevelt	1897-1901 1901	Republican
26	Theodore Roosevelt	Charles W. Fairbanks	1901-1905 1905-1909	Republican
27	William H. Taft	James S. Sherman	1909-1913	Republican
28	Woodrow Wilson	Thomas R. Marshall	1913-1917 1917-1921	Democrat
29	Warren G. Harding	Calvin Coolidge	1921-1923	Republican
30	Calvin Coolidge	Charles G. Dawes	1923-1925 1925-1929	Republican
31	Herbert C. Hoover	Charles Curtis	1929-1933	Republican
32	Franklin D. Roosevelt	John N. Garner Henry A. Wallace Harry S. Truman	1933-1941 1941-1945 1945	Democrat
33	Harry S. Truman	Alben Barkley	1945-1949 1949-1953	Democrat
34	Dwight D. Eisenhower	Richard M. Nixon	1953-1961	Republican
35	John F. Kennedy	Lyndon B. Johnson	1961-1963	Democrat
36	Lyndon B. Johnson	None Hubert H. Humphrey	1963-1965 1965-1968	Democrat
37	Richard M. Nixon	Spiro T. Agnew Gerald R. Ford	1969-1973 1973-1974	Republican
38	Gerald R. Ford	Nelson A. Rockefeller	1974-1977	Republican
39	Jimmy Carter	Walter F. Mondale	1977-1981	Democrat
40	Ronald W. Reagan	George H.W. Bush George H.W. Bush	1981-1985 1985-1989	Republican
41	George Herbert Walker Bush	Dan Quayle	1989-1993	Republican
42	William J. Clinton	Albert Gore Jr.	1993-1997 1997-2001	Democrat
43	George Walker Bush	Richard B. Cheney	2001-	Republican

The 25th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, passed in 1967, provides for procedures to fill vacancies in the Vice Presidency; further clarifies presidential succession rules

The President's Budget

Each year, the Federal Government spends trillions of dollars to carry out is responsibilities. It is a long and complicated process that begins with the creation and submission to Congress of the President's proposed spending plan for the Federal Government in the coming fiscal year. The documents containing the President's plan is known as the Budget of the U.S. Government.

The President's Budget is basically a series of goals with price tags attached. It allows the President to provide a suggested spending framework to Congress for use in deciding (1) how much money to spend, (2) what to spend it on, and (3) how to raise the money they have decided to spend. According to the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the President must annually submit a budget to Congress by the first Monday in February. In addition to the proposed spending plan, the President's Budget must show:

The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) assists the President in the creation of the President's Budget by gathering data from agencies and compiling it into the final plan to be approved by the President. As part of this process, OMB also studies Government services in detail and then recommends changes to the President intended to increase the economy and efficiency of Government operations.

The process of creating the President's Budget starts about a year before it is due to be submitted to Congress. It begins with the development of the President's an overall budget strategy in the spring and by summer Federal agencies submit their budget estimates based on that strategy. During the fall, the estimates provided by the agencies are reviewed by OMB and by the winter, the President's budget is reviewed, finalized, and submitted to Congress as required.

According to the Constitution, all Federal appropriations must be authorized by Congress. This is a source of great power for Congress known as the "power of the purse". Once the President's Budget is received by Congress, the House of Representatives works to create a budget resolution, which sets the base line level of spending for the Federal Government as required by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. Once this bottom line is established, Congress acts to decide how this level of funding will be dispersed among Federal activities.

THE UNITED STATES Constitution.
The United States Constitution was drawn up in Philadelphia, then the capital of the States, in May 1787, and was ratified by the parliaments of the 13 states between 1787 and 1790.
The most important historic inspiration of the US Constitution was the English "Magna Carta", the document drawn up by the English barons in 1215, and which set clear limits on the exercise of power by the ruler (in this case the monarch, King John, "Jean sans Terre"), formalized the principles of government by consensus (parliamentary government), and established the fundamental rights of the individual.

The Five principal articles of the United States Constitution lay down:
Article 1. The constitution and powers of Congress (legislative power)
Article 2. The powers of the President of the United States, and their limits (executive power)
Article 3. The power of the Supreme Court (judicial power)
Article 4. Relations between the states, and the possibility of admitting new states.
Article 5. Methods of amending the Constitution.

However it quickly became clear that the original Constitution was not sufficient, and since 1791 a number of Amendments have been added. The first of these, Amendments 1 to X, were voted in 1791: defining the status of people in the United States, these first 10 Amendments are collectively known as the Bill of Rights.

The "First Amendment" is no doubt the most famous of all the items in the American Constitution. It states, quite briefly, that:
"Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibition of the free exercise thereof; of abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for the redress of grievances."
Thus "first amendment rights" have been invoked by Americans ever since in defence of their rights to freedom of belief, freedom of behaviour (within the scope of legality), and freedom of all kinds of idiosyncratic ideas. However, they are also invoked by those who wish to practice or disseminate all kinds of bizarre or extreme ideas and religions, from the strange Mormon preachings of Joseph Smith in the 19th century, to the dissemination of neo-Nazi propaganda over the Internet in the 21st.

The Second Amendment
This states that : "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed."
This, perhaps the most controversial of the Amendments in modern times, is the cause of intense attention by the two opposing camps in modern American society, those in favor of firearms legislation as a means to combat America's terrible record in homicides and armed crime (the homicide and armed crime rate in the USA is far far higher than those in other Western countries where the possession of arms is closely regulated, if not largely forbidden), and those who maintain the "constitutional" right of any American to carry arms even for personal use (nothing to do with a Militia for the purpose of State security)

The Fourth Amendment
Places limits on the rights of the state to enter or conduct seizures on private property.

The 5th to 8th Amendments
These establish the civil rights of defendants in courts of law, including the rights to trial by jury, the rights to summon witnesses, and the limits on the power of the State or state prosecutors to set "unreasonable" levels of bail.

The 10th Amendment.
This underlines the fact that only certain powers in the United States are delegated to the federal government, and that all other power resides in the individual states and the people.

The Twelfth Amendment (ratified in 1804) determines the manner in which the President and Vice President of the USA are elected by "electors" nominated by the different states. N.B. As was illustrated by the Bush/Gore election controversy in 2000, the President of the USA is NOT directly elected by universal suffrage, contrary to an often held popular belief.)

The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) banned slavery in the United States. Note; In spite of the Jeffersonian precept that "all men are born equal", slavery was banned in the USA long after it was outlawed in most countries of Europe and their dependencies.

The Fourteenth Amendment (ratified in 1868) defines US citizenship and the manner in which states elect their Representatives to Congress.

The Fifteenth amendment (ratified in 1870) establishes universal suffrage, irrespective of a person's race, status or religion.

. The Sixteenth Amendment (ratified in 1913) gives Congress the formal right to levy taxes, including income tax . This represented a reversal of a principle that was dearly held by many original colonists and many Americans.

. The twentieth amendment (1933) fixed the terms and changeover dates of the presidency. In 1951, the 22nd Amendment limited the number of terms of office that a president could serve, to two terms of four years each.

Act: Legislation that has passed both Houses of Congress and has been either approved by the President, or passed over his veto, thus becoming law. Also used technically for a bill that has been passed by one House of Congress.

Alien: A person residing under a government or in a country other than that of one's birth without being a citizen of that non-native country.

Amendment: A proposal by a Member (in committee or floor session of the respective Chamber) to alter the language or provisions of a bill or act. It is voted on in the same manner as a bill. The Constitution of the United States, as provided in Article 5, may be amended when two thirds of each house of Congress approves a proposed amendment and three fourths of the states thereafter ratify it.

Anti-Federalists: Opponents to the adoption of the federal Constitution. Leading Anti-Federalists included George Mason, Elbridge Gerry, Patrick Henry, and George Clinton.

Bill: Formally introduced legislation. Most legislative proposals are in the form of bills and are designated as H.R. (House of Representatives) or S. (Senate), depending on the House in which they originate, and are numbered consecutively in the order in which they are introduced during each Congress. Public bills deal with general questions and become Public Laws, or Acts, if approved by Congress and signed by the President. Private bills deal with individual matters such as claims against the Federal Government, immigration and naturalization cases, land titles, et cetera, and become private laws if approved and signed.

Bicameral: The characteristic of having two branches, chambers, or houses, such as the United States Congress which is composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Calendar: A list of bills, resolutions, or other matters to be considered before committees or on the floor of either House of Congress.

Centralized Government: A form of government in which the national government maintains the power.

Checks and Balances: A system of limits imposed by the Constitution of the United States on all branches of a government by vesting in each branch the right to amend or void those acts of another that fall within its jurisdiction.

Citizen: A native or naturalized member of a state or nation who owes allegiance to its government and is entitled to its protection.

Commerce: The traffic in goods, usually thought of as trade between states or nations.

Confirmation: Action by the Senate approving Presidential nominees for the executive branch, regulatory commissions, and certain other positions.

Delegate: A person designated to act for or represent another or others; a deputy; representative, as in a political convention.

Democratic: Characterized by the principle of political or social equality for all.

Dual Federalism: A system of government where the states governed the people directly and the national government concerned itself with issues relating to foreign affairs.

Elastic Clause: A statement in the U.S. Constitution granting Congress the power to pass all laws necessary and proper for carrying out the list of powers it was granted.

Enrolled Bill: Legislation that has been passed by both houses of Congress, signed by their presiding officers, and sent to the President for signature.

Federal: A union of groups or states in which each member agrees to give up some of its governmental power in certain specified areas to a central authority.

Federalism: A union of states in which sovereignty is divided between a central authority and the member state authorities.

Federalists: A group of people who supported the adoption of the Constitution. Leading Federalists included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay.

Fiscal Year: A twelve-month accounting period used by the Federal Government that goes from October 1st to September 30th. Currently, the Government is in FY02, which goes from October 1, 2001 to September 30, 2002.

Gerrymandering: Drawing of district lines to maximize the electoral advantage of a political party or faction. The term was first used in 1812, when Elbridge Gerry was Governor of Massachusetts, to characterize the State redistricting plan.

Hearing: A meeting or session of a committee of Congress, usually open to the public, to obtain information and opinions on proposed legislation, conduct an investigation, or oversee a program.

Hopper: A box into which a proposed legislative bill is dropped and thereby officially introduced.

Immigrant: A person who migrates to another country, usually for permanent residence.

Impeachment: A formal accusation issued by a legislature against a public official charged with crime or other serious misconduct.

Independent: When a person or thing is not influenced or controlled by others in matters of opinion, conduct, etc.; thinking or acting for oneself.

Indirect popular election: Instead of voting for a specific candidate, voters select a panel of individuals pledged to vote for a specific candidate. This is in contrast to a popular election where votes are cast for an individual candidate. For example, in a general presidential election, voters select electors to represent their vote in the Electoral College, and not for an individual presidential candidate.

Initiative: A procedure by which a specified number of voters may propose a statute, constitutional amendment, or ordinance, and compel a popular vote on its adoption.

Judicial Review: The power of a court to judge the constitutionality of the laws of a government or the acts of a government official.

Law: A rule of conduct established and enforced by the authority, legislation, or custom of a given community, state, or nation.

Legislative Day: A formal meeting of a House of Congress which begins with the call to order and opening of business and ends with adjournment. A legislative day may cover a period of several calendar days, with the House recessing at the end of each calendar day, rather than adjourning.

Line-Item Veto: The power of the executive to disapprove of particular items of a bill without having to disapprove of the entire bill.

National: A person under the protection of a specific country; a citizen or subject.

Naturalization: The official act by which a person is made a national of a country other than his native one.

Pocket Veto: The disapproval of a bill brought about by an indirect rejection by the president. The president is granted ten days, Sundays excepted, to review a piece of legislation passed by Congress. Should he fail to sign a piece of legislation and Congress has adjourned within those ten days, the bill is automatically killed. The process of indirect rejection is known as a pocket veto.

Primary Election: An election held to decide which candidates will be on the November general election ballot.

Public Law: A bill or joint resolution (other than for amendments to the Constitution) passed by both Houses of Congress and approved by the President. Bills and joint resolutions vetoed by the President, but then overridden by the Congress also become public law.

Ratification: Two uses of this term are: (1) the act of approval of a proposed constitutional amendment by the legislatures of the States; (2) the Senate process of advice and consent to treaties negotiated by the President.

Reapportionment: The process by which seats in the House of Representatives are reassigned among the States to reflect population changes following the decennial census.

Redistricting: The process within the States of redrawing legislative district boundaries to reflect population changes following the decennial census.

Referendum: The submission of a law, proposed or already in effect, to a direct vote of the people.

Report: The printed record of a committee’s actions, including its votes, recommendations, and views on a bill or question of public policy or its findings and conclusions based on oversight inquiry, investigation, or other study.

Republic: A state or nation in which the supreme power rests in all the citizens entitled to vote. This power is exercised by representatives elected, directly or indirectly, by them and responsible to them.

Separation of Powers: The distribution of power and authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the government.

Sovereign: Above or superior to all others; chief; greatest; supreme dominion or power.

Tabling Motion: A motion to stop action on a pending proposal and to lay it aside indefinitely. When the Senate or House agrees to a tabling motion, the measure which has been tabled is effectively defeated.

Veto: The constitutional procedure by which the President refuses to approve a bill or joint resolution and thus prevents its enactment into law. A regular veto occurs when the President returns the legislation to the originating House without approval. It can be overridden only by a two-thirds vote in each House. A pocket veto occurs after Congress has adjourned and is unable to override the President’s action.