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INTELLIGENCE intelligence
Psychology intelligence
quotient
Psychology intelligence Early
investigations into intelligence assumed that there was one underlying general
factor at its base (the g-factor), but later psychologists maintained that
intelligence could not be determined by such a simplistic method. Raymond Cattell
argued that intelligence can be separated into two fundamental parts: fluid
ability and crystallized ability. Fluid ability is considered innate, basic
reasoning skill, while crystallized intelligence is the information and skills
that are acquired through experience in a cultural environment. Other
psychologists have further divided intelligence into subcategories. Howard
Gardner maintained (1985) that intelligence is comprised of seven components:
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal. J. P. Guilford tried (1982) to show that there
are 150 different mental abilities that constitute intelligence. It
is generally accepted that intelligence is related to both heredity and
environment. Studies done on families, particularly among identical twins and
adopted children, have shown that heredity is an important factor in determining
intelligence; but they have also suggested that environment is a critical factor
in determining the extent of its expression. For instance, children reared in
orphanages or other environments that are comparatively unstimulating tend to
show retarded intellectual development. In recent years, controversy regarding
intelligence has centered primarily around how much of each factor, heredity and
environment, is responsible for an individual's level of intelligence. ERIC Identifier: ED385605 CURRENT
CONCEPTIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence
has been defined and studied under a number of different rubrics, among them
individual differences, cognitive abilities, and aptitudes. Probably the most
influential developments in our recent understanding of these concepts have come
from educational and psychological researchers associated with cognitive
psychology. Three of those individuals, Robert Sternberg, Howard Gardner, and
John Horn serve as a representative sample of researchers who have made
significant gains in our current conceptions of intelligence. In the following
paragraphs I briefly summarize each one's conceptualization of intellectual
abilities. Robert
Sternberg. Sternberg's (1985) theory of intelligence contains three subtheories,
one about context, one about experience, and one about the cognitive components
of information processing. The contextual subtheory attempts to specify what
would be considered "intelligent" in a given culture or context.
According to Sternberg, culturally intelligent behavior involves either adapting
to one's present environment, selecting a more optimal environment, or reshaping
one's current environment. The experiential subtheory claims that the expression
of any intelligent behavior will be a function of the amount of experience one
has with the particular class of tasks being tested. According to Sternberg,
intelligence is best demonstrated when the task is relatively novel or
unfamiliar. The componential subtheory describes the cognitive structures and
processes that together produce intelligent behavior. Sternberg proposes three
general types of processes: metacomponents (which control and monitor
processing), performance components (processes that execute plans), and
knowledge acquisition components (which encode and assemble new knowledge). As a
whole, the triarchic theory claims different aspects or kinds of intelligence
(e.g., academic, practical). Howard
Gardner. One of the most popular recent views of intelligence, at least among
practitioners, has come from Gardner (e.g., Gardner & Hatch, 1989). He
proposes a theory of multiple intelligences in which he claims there are seven
relatively independent intelligences. Those intelligences are
logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,
interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Additionally, Gardner recognizes that one's
experiences will influence the degree to which each of the intelligences can be
expressed. Thus, rather than characterizing an individual's intelligence by a
single test score, Gardner argues for determining the profile of one's
intelligences, taking into account culturally valued activities that can be
expressed in a familiar context. Accordingly, this view suggests the need for
new forms of assessment. Gardner and his colleagues have been working on
versions of new, more authentic assessment tools for the past 8 years. The
results have been mixed. For a critique, the interested reader should see
Sternberg (1991). John
Horn. Along with his advisor, Raymond B. Cattell, John Horn has developed a
theory of intelligence that specifies two broad factors, fluid abilities and
crystallized abilities, along with numerous specific factors that support the
general ones. Fluid intelligence represents one's ability to reason and solve
problems in novel or unfamiliar situations. Crystallized intelligence, on the
other hand, indicates the extent to which an individual has attained the
knowledge of a culture. According to Horn (1989), the Gf - Gc theory can also be
thought of as a theory of multiple intelligences because of the relative
independence of fluid and crystallized abilities (characterized by distinctly
separate patterns of covariation). Horn also argues that the expressions of
these abilities "... are outcroppings of distinct influences operating
through development, brain function, genetic determination, and the adjustments,
adaptations, and achievements of school and work." (Horn, 1989, p. 76) LEARNING
AND INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES
An
important development in our understanding of intelligence, is the near
universal agreement among researchers that at least some aspects of our
intellectual abilities depend heavily on our experiential histories. This
acknowledgement should be clear in the three theories summarized above. Each one
recognizes the inseparability of experience from intellectual ability. This
position stands in stark contrast to the one that holds that intelligence tests
measure - or ought to measure - one's innate capacity. Admitting that experience
influences one's performance on an intelligence test severely undermines the
innate capacity notion, unless one adopts the weaker position that intelligence
is a measure of one's innate capacity to learn. In either case, the logical
position to assume is that any theory that attempts to explain individual
differences in intellectual abilities must include a learning subtheory as part
of it. A
recent volume edited by Ackerman, Sternberg, and Glaser (1989) presents several
current approaches that integrate information processing theories of learning
with theories of individual differences in abilities. Two widely acknowledged
views have come from Ackerman (e.g., 1993) and Lohman (1989; 1993). The next two
paragraphs briefly summarize these researchers' views. Phillip
Ackerman. Ackerman (1993) has adapted aspects of John R. Anderson's theory of
cognitive skill acquisition (e.g., Anderson, 1983) and coupled it with a theory
of intellectual abilities proposed by Marshalek, Lohman, and Snow (1983). The
integration has produced a hybrid theory which claims that as learning occurs,
intellectual differences are reduced for tasks that have a consistent
problem-solving structure. In contrast, intellectual differences become
magnified for tasks that have variable (novel?) problem-solving structures. In
other words, with practice peoples' intellectual abilities will be either
similar or different, depending on the nature of the mental processes required
to solve different types of problems. David
Lohman. Lohman (1989; 1993) has coupled information processing theories of
learning (e.g., Anderson, 1983) with the Gf - Gc theory (e.g., Horn, 1989) in
order to characterize the relation between learning and intelligence. It has
been known for some time that crystallized intelligence was the product of the
acquisition of knowledge (i.e., experience). However, recently Lohman (1993) has
argued persuasively that fluid intelligence (i.e., the ability to reason in
novel situations) may also be amenable to learning. In fact, he espouses that
schools would benefit from direct instruction and testing of fluid abilities.
According
to Howard Gardner, as presented in his book Frames
of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, human intelligence has
the following characteristics:
The
following principles are a condensation of J. Keith Rogers and based upon his
study of Howard Gardner's theory:
According
to Howard Gardner, as presented in his book Frames
of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, human intelligence has
the following criteria:
According
to Howard Gardner, as presented in his book Frames
of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, "it
becomes necessary to say, once and for all, that there can never be, a single
irrefutable and universally accepted list of human intelligences."
pg.60 Though
an exhaustive list of every intelligence may not be possible, identifying
intelligences is important for at least two reasons:
Linguistic
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Linguistic
intelligence (or verbal-linguistic) is the ability to use with clarity the core
operations of language. People with linguistic intelligence have a sensitivity
to the meaning of words--the capacity to follow rules of grammar, and, on
carefully selected occasions, to violate them. At a somewhat more sensory
level--a sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, inflections, and meters of
words--that ability which can make even poetry in a foreign tongue beautiful to
hear. And a sensitivity to the different functions of language--its potential to
excite, convince, stimulate, convey information, or simply to please. Logical-Mathematical
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Logical-Mathematical
intelligence is logical and mathematical ability as well as scientific ability.
Abstraction is fundamental, reasoning is complex, and problem-solution is
natural. Order and sequence are significant. There is a drive to know causality
as well as the explication of existence. Intra-Personal
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Intra-Personal
intelligence is the ability to form an accurate model of oneself, and to use
that model to operate effectively in life. At a basic level, it is the capacity
to distinguish feelings of pleasure from emotional pain and., on the basis of
such discrimination, to become more involved in or to withdraw from a situation.
At the most advanced level, interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to detect
and to symbolize complex and high differentiated sets of feelings. Inter-Personal
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Inter-personal
intelligence is the ability to notice and make distinctions among other
individuals and, in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations,
and intentions. Examined in its most elementary form, the inter-personal
intelligence entails the capacity of the young child to detect and discriminate
the various moods of those around them. In an advanced form, it permits a
skilled adult to read the intentions and desires--even when those desires have
been hidden--of many other individuals and, potentially, act upon this
knowledge. Musical
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Musical
intelligence (or Musical-rhythmic) is the ability to use the core set of musical
elements--pitch, rhythm, and timbre (understanding the characteristic qualities
of a tone). There may be a hierarchy of difficulty involved in various
roles--composition, performance, listening. Spatial
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Spatial
intelligence (or visual-spatial) is the capacity to perceive the world
accurately, and to be able to recreate one's visual experience. It entails a
number of loosely related capacities: the ability to recognize instances of the
same element; the ability to recognize transformations of one element in
another; the capacity to conjure up mental imagery and then to transform that
imagery; the ability to produce a graphic likeness of spatial information; and
the like. A person with a good sense of direction or the ability to move and
operate well in the world would indicate spatial intelligence. Bodily-Kinesthetic
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Bodily-Kinesthetic
intelligence is control of one's bodily motions and the ability to handle
objects skillfully. Naturalistic
Intelligence The
following definition is an abbreviation and adaptation by J. Keith Rogers and
based upon his study of Howard Gardner's theory: Naturalistic
intelligence is the ability to understand, relate to, categorize, classify,
comprehend, and explain the things encountered in the world of nature. Ultimately in terms of testing, IQ measures the ability to do IQ tests, little theoretical footing exists to contradict this assertion. Tests in general rely heavily on vocabulary in order to transmit their information so already a bias is introduced in favour of those with superior vocabulary comprehension abilities. In this fashion another inaccuracy is introduced to IQ tests - they do not measure specific aspects of ones intelligence in isolation. Finally it must be asserted that generally we are more comforted by qualitative than qualitative aspects of intelligence. Consequently there persists the general assumption that in assigning numeric weight to questions we are actually testing intelligence. |